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Examining the Differential Effectiveness of Fear Appeals in Information Security Management Using Two-Stage Meta-Analysis
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2023 | Journal of Management Information Systems | Citations: 0
Authors: Lowry, Paul Benjamin; Moody, Gregory D.; Parameswaran, Srikanth; Brown, Nicholas James

Abstract: Most of the information security management research involving fear appeals is g ... Expand

Abstract: Most of the information security management research involving fear appeals is guided by either protection motivation theory or the extended parallel processing model. Over time, extant research has extended these theories, as well as their derivative theories, in a variety of ways, leading to several theoretical and empirical inconsistencies. The large body of fragmented, and sometimes conflicting, research has muddied the broader understanding of what drives protection- and defensive motivation. We provide guidance to the security discourse by offering the first study in the literature to employ two-stage meta-analytic structural equation modeling (TSSEM), which combines covariance-based structural equation modeling and meta-analysis. Information systems (IS) researchers have traditionally used meta-analysis for structural equation modeling for such purposes—an approach that has several serious statistical flaws. Using 341 systematically selected empirical security articles (representing 383 unique studies) and TSSEM, we pool a large series of five datasets to test six models, from which we examine the effects of constructs and paths in the security fear-appeals literature. We compare and test six versions of models inspired by issues in the broader fear-appeals literature. We confirm the importance of both the threat- and coping-appraisal processes; establish the central role of fear and that it has greater importance than threat; show that efficacy is a stronger predictor of protection motivation than is threat; demonstrate that response costs as currently measured are ineffective but that maladaptive rewards have a strong negative effect on protection motivation and a positive effect on defensive motivation; and provide evidence that dual models of danger control and fear control should be used. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: H1N1 flu self efficacy Python data quality information security management

Methods: structural equation modeling meta analysis statistical hypothesis test hierarchical linear modeling statistical power analysis

Theories: fear appeal theory extended parallel process model protection motivation theory
Approaching IT Security & Avoiding Threats in the Smart Home Context
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2022 | Journal of Management Information Systems | Citations: 1
Authors: Nehme, Alaa; George, Joey F.

Abstract: Not securing smart home devices has proven a threat to cyberspace. This has unde ... Expand

Abstract: Not securing smart home devices has proven a threat to cyberspace. This has underscored the importance of using fear appeals to promote users' information security behavior. We practiced context-specific theorization to enhance fear appeal theory and design. Particularly, we extended Protection Motivation Theory to include avoidant-focused motivation (i.e., users' intent to avoid using their devices), the positive emotion of hope, and information technology (IT)-self extension. Our hypotheses include that fear engenders both protection and avoidant-focused motivations, hope mediates coping appraisal to engender (reduce) protection (avoidant-focused) motivation, and IT-self-extension acts as an antecedent. We conducted four studies, including two surveys and two experiments, and validated our extensions. Our main theoretical contributions include showing that hope is critical in determining which coping mechanism occurs and that it improves the theory's predictive power. In terms of practice, we demonstrate that a fear appeal message with a self-extension component and a strong coping component is more effective. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: smart home data security self efficacy mobile system data quality

Methods: survey post-hoc analysis experiment robustness check chi squared test

Theories: fear appeal theory appraisal theory protection motivation theory
Do Security Fear Appeals Work When They Interrupt Tasks? A Multi-Method Examination of Password Strength

2022 | Management Information Systems Quarterly | Citations: 0
Authors: Vance, Anthony; Eargle, David; Eggett, Dennis; Straub, Detmar; Ouimet, Kirk

Abstract: Weak passwords are one of the most pervasive threats in cybersecurity. Facing th ... Expand

Abstract: Weak passwords are one of the most pervasive threats in cybersecurity. Facing this threat, users require guidance on how to protect themselves. A method frequently used by IS practitioners and researchers to provide this guidance is fear appeals, persuasive messages intended to prompt behavioral changes in response to a threat. However, previous research has not considered a key element of fear appeal effectiveness: task primacy. When fear appeals are a part of the primary or focal task, users’ cognitive engagement will be high by default. However, when fear appeals are delivered as secondary tasks, such as interruptive security messages, users’ engagement is likely to be low because the primary task takes priority in attentional and cognitive resources. In such cases, a remedy is needed to elicit engagement with the fear appeal. In this research note, we theorize that cognitive engagement acts as a contextual moderator that is critical to the effectiveness of fear appeals under the boundary condition of task primacy. Further, we theorize that interactivity, a mechanism that adapts message content through tailored real-time feedback in response to a user’s actions, is a key remedy to enhance engagement with fear appeals. However, to date fear appeals have largely been tested in noninteractive primary tasks, and no study has provided a theoretical explanation for why interactivity enhances the power of a fear appeal. We empirically examined engagement as a contextual moderator in two ways. First, we conducted a field experiment, which manipulated messages on a password creation form on a real-world website. Second, we performed a qualitative focus group study to triangulate the experimental results and more fully reify our theoretical model. Together, the findings reveal that interactivity acts as a catalyst to engage participants with a fear appeal, which then allows the persuasive message of the fear appeal to be internalized. The concepts of boundary condition of task primacy and engagement suggest ways that fear appeals can be more effectively applied in research and practice. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: password website IT security self efficacy mobile application

Methods: focus group experiment field experiment theory development experimental group

Theories: fear appeal theory
Discovering the interplay between defensive avoidance and continued use intention of anti-malware software among experienced home users: A moderated mediation model
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2022 | Information & Management | Citations: 0
Authors: Xie, Yitian; Siponen, Mikko; Moody, Greg; Zheng, Xiaosong

Abstract: Dismissing or disregarding security notifications (defensive avoidance) may lead ... Expand

Abstract: Dismissing or disregarding security notifications (defensive avoidance) may lead to inactive use of anti-malware, compromising the effective protection of home computers. Nevertheless, few studies have investigated the cognitive and behavioral mechanisms initiated by defensive avoidance in users. Motivated thus, we propose a moderated mediation model that depicts users’ cognitive and behavioral mechanisms initiated by defensive avoidance, as well as the moderation role of perceived vulnerability and user involvement. Our results show that perceived vulnerability and user involvement may moderate a biased cognitive mediation process between defensive avoidance and future behavioral intention. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: malware participatory design usage intention behavioral intention home computer

Methods: design methodology mediation analysis survey descriptive statistic SEM tool

Theories: fear appeal theory
Using susceptibility claims to motivate behaviour change in IT security
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2021 | European Journal of Information Systems | Citations: 1
Authors: Jensen, Matthew L.; Durcikova, Alexandra; Wright, Ryan T.

Abstract: Organisations face growing IT security risks with substantial consequences for m ... Expand

Abstract: Organisations face growing IT security risks with substantial consequences for missteps in business continuity, data loss, reputational harm, and future competitive advantage. To improve precaution-taking among organisation members, leaders frequently turn to susceptibility claims embedded in security education, training, and awareness (SETA) initiatives to motivate change. However, prior studies have produced mixed empirical results concerning the role of susceptibility in motivating precaution-taking. To deepen theorising about using susceptibility claims to change behaviour, we argue that threat characteristics (overt versus furtive attacks) shape individuals’ attitudes of the threat, and these attitudes subsequently anchor how individuals respond to new claims about the threats. We introduce social judgement theory (SJT) to argue that when individuals participate in SETA initiatives, susceptibility claims that are too distant from individuals’ existing attitudes will be ignored, while claims that are more proximal are more likely to be accepted and result in behaviour change. Using a longitudinal field experiment, we found that susceptibility claims motivated precaution taking against phishing (overt attack) but did not against password cracking (furtive attack). These results support SJT predictions and imply latitudes of acceptability and rejection into which susceptibility claims are placed. Implications for researchers, organisation leaders, and SETA developers are discussed. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: password phishing IT security IT security threat self efficacy

Methods: experiment field experiment theory development longitudinal research structured literature research

Theories: fear appeal theory protection motivation theory
Editorial: A Brief Retrospective (2013-2019)
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2020 | Journal of the Association for Information Systems | Citations: 0
Authors: Sarker, Suprateek; Palvia, Prashant; Oguz, Abdullah; Wu, Caven; Xiao, Xiao

Abstract: ... Expand

Abstract: Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: privacy information system use systems design health information system electronic commerce

Methods: literature sample theory development grounded theory design theory structured literature research

Theories: privacy calculus theory technology acceptance model actor network theory general systems theory theory of affordance
Perceived argument quality's effect on threat and coping appraisals in fear appeals: An experiment and exploration of realism check heuristics
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2019 | Information & Management | Citations: 18
Authors: Wall, Jeffrey D.; Warkentin, Merrill

Abstract: Persuasion is key to encourage compliance with information security policies thr ... Expand

Abstract: Persuasion is key to encourage compliance with information security policies through fear appeals, though research has not examined how the perceived quality of their arguments affects threat and coping appraisals. Because we know that perceived argument quality can influence attitudes and behavior, it may improve fear appeal effectiveness. The results of a scenario-based field experiment suggest that perceived argument quality increases response efficacy perceptions and compliance intentions. We also examine emerging heuristics about how to use realism checks in scenario-based research and find that current realism check heuristics in behavioral information security research may be misguided, contributing to biased interpretation. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: self efficacy laptop computer behavioral intention electronic mail data security

Methods: ANOVA parametric test multivariate analysis of variance experiment survey design

Theories: fear appeal theory self determination theory
Examining Internet Users’ Adaptive and Maladaptive Security Behaviors Using the Extended Parallel Process Model

2017 | International Conference on Information Systems | Citations: 0
Authors: Chen, Yan

Abstract: Realizing the importance of the behavioral aspect of information security (ISec) ... Expand

Abstract: Realizing the importance of the behavioral aspect of information security (ISec), researchers have adopted the protection motivation theory (PMT) and its variations as one of major theories to investigate security behaviors. This has made contributions to IS research and improved our knowledge on the role of threat and coping appraisals in promoting adaptive security behaviors. However, IS research still needs a further understanding on when and how threat and coping appraisals work to promote adaptive security behaviors or trigger maladaptive security behaviors. To address this issue, this study develops a research model adopting the extended parallel process model (EPPM) and employs the model in an empirical study. This study also introduces a discriminant value approach to explain the interplay effect of threat and coping appraisals. The results demonstrate that coping appraisal plays a more dominant role in promoting adaptive security behaviors, while fear elicits both adaptive and maladaptive security behaviors. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: IT security threat internet technology self efficacy IT security training electronic commerce

Methods: survey literature study mediation analysis parametric test ANOVA

Theories: extended parallel process model fear appeal theory
To fear or not to fear? A critical review and analysis of fear appeals in the information security context
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2017 | Communications of the Association for Information Systems | Citations: 28
Authors: Wall, Jeffrey D.; Buche, Mari W.

Abstract: Controlling organizational insiders’ security behaviors is an important manageme ... Expand

Abstract: Controlling organizational insiders’ security behaviors is an important management concern. Research presents fear appeals as a viable security control to promote protective security behaviors. To date, research has proven securityrelated fear appeals have to effectively control insiders’ security behaviors. However, from critically examining fear appeals, we find a different story. Specifically, we critically analyze security-related fear appeal research from two ontological positions: critical realism and critical constructivism. The critical realist analysis identifies several issues with existing fear appeal research, which particular research traditions may cause. We explicate these traditions and issues in the paper. The critical constructivist analysis draws on critical management studies of control and Foucault’s work to identify the identities, beliefs, and values that fear appeals promote and the ways in which fear appeals create discursive closures that limit the consideration and discussion of other positions. Based on the two analyses, we provide important directions for future fear appeal research. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: data security privacy self efficacy knowledge representation job satisfaction

Methods: literature study literature sample qualitative content analysis ontological modelling cross sectional research

Theories: fear appeal theory
Neural Correlates of Protection Motivation for Secure IT Behaviors: An fMRI Examination

2016 | Journal of the Association for Information Systems | Citations: 55
Authors: Warkentin, Merrill; Walden, Eric; Johnston, Allen C.; Straub, Detmar William

Abstract: Information security management programs have long included "fear appeals", mana ... Expand

Abstract: Information security management programs have long included "fear appeals", managerial communiqués designed to promote secure behaviors among organizational insiders. However, recent research has found a conflict between the predictions of contemporary fear appeal theory for how we expect individuals to experience fear appeals and what actually occurs in IS security situations. Using the opportunity presented by neuroimaging tools to examine cognitive and affective reactions to fear appeals, we take a comparative look at the contentions of fear appeal theory and the realities of what insiders experience neurologically when exposed to ecologically relevant IS security fear appeals. Our fMRI results suggest that fear appeals elicit threat and threat response assessments, which partially supports fear appeal theory but does not support the presence of an actual fear response. Furthermore, appraisals of recommended threat responses had a stronger impact on intentions to enact security behaviors than appraisals of the threat itself, which suggests that a focus on threats might be misplaced. Instead, focusing on ways to make the responses to the threats more appealing to users might work better. These controversial findings suggest future research that should explore how fear appeals play out in IS security and in what ways. Collapse

Semantic filters: fear appeal theory

Topics: IT security IT security threat behavioral intention self efficacy cybersecurity behavior

Methods: functional magnetic resonance imaging experimental design laboratory experiment experiment regression analysis method

Theories: fear appeal theory

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Found 12 articles

Examining the Differential Effectiveness of Fear Appeals in Information Security Management Using Two-Stage Meta-Analysis

Approaching IT Security & Avoiding Threats in the Smart Home Context

Do Security Fear Appeals Work When They Interrupt Tasks? A Multi-Method Examination of Password Strength

Discovering the interplay between defensive avoidance and continued use intention of anti-malware software among experienced home users: A moderated mediation model

Using susceptibility claims to motivate behaviour change in IT security

Editorial: A Brief Retrospective (2013-2019)

Perceived argument quality's effect on threat and coping appraisals in fear appeals: An experiment and exploration of realism check heuristics

Examining Internet Users’ Adaptive and Maladaptive Security Behaviors Using the Extended Parallel Process Model

To fear or not to fear? A critical review and analysis of fear appeals in the information security context

Neural Correlates of Protection Motivation for Secure IT Behaviors: An fMRI Examination